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transdifferentiation means conversion of one differentiated cell type into another. it is a subset of a wider class of cell type transformations called metaplasias. this website explains about how one cell type of a human or animal can be converted into another. it deals with naturally occurring transformations, pathological transformations and transformations induced by molecular genetic methods. it explains why transdifferentiation has been the source of fierce controversy and the practical significance of its occurrence or non-occurrence. it is written by jonathan slack (university of minnesota and university of bath) and david tosh, (university of bath). webpage design by james corbett . cells, tissues and organs cells cells are the ultimate structural unit of an animal or plant body. each has a nucleus containing the genetic material (dna), and a cytoplasm containing a complex mixture of proteins and other sorts of molecule that perform particular biochemical or mechanical tasks. there are about 210 kinds of cell in a human body ( alberts et al., 1994 ). most of them are what we call differentiated cells, each type of which has a specific function and a particular appearance when viewed down the microscope. for example cells of the liver (hepatocytes), or of the heart muscle (cardiomyocytes), or of the brain (neurons), are well known types of differentiated cell. the differentiated type that a cell belongs to depends on which particular genes are active in its nucleus. each gene encodes one specific protein and the repertoire of genes that are active, and thus of proteins that are produced, defines the type of the cell. the complete set of genes present in the cell nucleus is called the genome, and to a first approximation the genome is the same for every cell in the body. an undifferentiated cell is one that does not have any obvious specialisation of gene expression and has a bland generic appearance down the microscope. but just because you cannot see specialisation this does not mean that it does not exist. most undifferentiated cells are specialised in some way, especially in terms of restrictions into what other types of cell they can become. undifferentiated cells are found in the embryo, where they develop into various types of differentiated cells in the course of time. they are also found in some cancers, where lack of differentiation often indicates a poor grade of tumour, liable to respond poorly to treatment. undifferentiated cells are sometimes, but by no means always, stem cells. what is a cell type? differentiated cell types are, by definition, discrete and persistent. the “state” of a cell is defined as the steady state concentration of all the substances in the cell, comprising both macromolecules and small metabolites. this is essentially equivalent to the pattern of gene expression: the list of which genes are active, and to what extent they are active. it can be experimentally determined by rna analysis: for example employing the rna seq technique, which effectively counts the number of each type of mrna molecule in a sample. the steady state level of one specific mrna will reflect both the rate of synthesis by transcription and the rate of degradation. a cell state may not be persistent, it can be very short lived, and evolve spontaneously into a different cell state. this happens all the time during embryonic development, and during postnatal development of differentiated cells from stem cells. there are two traditions in theoretical biology that try to capture the nature and evolution of cell states ( karlebach and shamir, 2008 ). one uses continuous mathematics and represents the cell by a set of differential equations, one for each substance, describing how its concentration changes in time. the other uses boolean logic, representing each gene as a binary variable: 1 for “on” and 0 for “off”. both types of formalism can be used to build complex models which capture certain aspects of how cells behave. but both have their limitations. large arrays of nonlinear differential equations are mathematically intractable and require huge amounts of computing power to make simulations. boolean logic cannot easily deal with those aspects of cellular biochemistry that really are continuous rather than discrete. the classification of human or animal cell types is based on the appearance of cells under the light microscope, following staining with appropriate dyes. in reality there are more than the quoted figure of 210 cell types because some cells that are known to differ in their properties, especially different sorts of lymphocyte or neuron, may nonetheless look the same. visibly distinguishable cell types normally contain relatively large quantities of a few proteins associated with their specific function, for example the contractile proteins found in muscle fibres, or the neurofilament proteins found in nerve axons. such cells are called “differentiated”, contrasting with undifferentiated cells found in the early embryo or as stem cells in adult tissues. differentiated cell types usually do not divide, so they are called “postmitotic”. the differentiated state is considered to be stable, in contrast to the determined state of progenitor cells, which is transient. some types of differentiated cell persist for the life of the animal, for example many neurons or muscle fibres. others have a short lifetime, and are replaced by stem cells, for example the keratinocytes of the epidermis. tissues the structure of tissues is the subject of the science of histology. a tissue is an assemblage of cells, normally including more than one type of differentiated cell. from a developmental biology standpoint, a tissue is the set of cell types arising from one sort of progenitor or stem cell. for example, the intestinal epithelium is a tissue. it contains four cell types: absorptive, goblet, paneth and enteroendocrine cells together with undifferentiated cells within the crypts of lieberkuhn. the stem cells are located at the crypt base and produce progenitor cells, called transit amplifying cells, that divide a few times before differentiating into one of the four mature cell types ( van der flier and clevers, 2009 ). the tissue comprises the stem cells, the transit amplifying cells, and the differentiated cells. this is an example of a renewal tissue, in which there is continuous production and replacement of differentiated cells. not all tissues are renewal tissues although most display a small degree of renewal or the ability to replace the constituent cell types following damage. for example the central nervous system arises from the neuroepithelium of the early embryo and contains a variety of types of neuron together with glial cells, especially astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. because it arises from a clearly identified progenitor cell population, the central nervous system is one tissue. most of the differentiated cells of the central nervous system are postmitotic and persist for the lifetime of the animal. however, there is some multiplication of astrocytes, especially following damage. there is some continued production of oligodendrocytes throughout the cns from progenitor cells (oligodendrocyte precursor, or ng2 cells). there are two regions of the mammalian cns where populations of neural stem cells persist, the subventricular zone, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus ( zhao et al., 2008 ). neural stem cells produce neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes continuously throughout life. in some cases the precise status of tissues within the animal remains unclear. for instance there are cells called “mesenchymal stem cells” that can be isolated from bone marrow, adipose tissue or other connective tissues ( nombela-arrieta et al., 2011 ). in vitro these cells produce smooth muscle, adipose cells and osteocytes, although it is unclear whether they actually serve as progenitors for all these cell types in vivo. in cases where

URL analysis for transdifferentiation.com

http://www.transdifferentiation.com/images/ips%20cells.jpg
http://www.transdifferentiation.com/#_enref_17
http://www.transdifferentiation.com/#_enref_14
http://www.transdifferentiation.com/#stem_cells
http://www.transdifferentiation.com/#_enref_12
http://www.transdifferentiation.com/#_enref_13
http://www.transdifferentiation.com/#_enref_10
http://www.transdifferentiation.com/#metaplasia
http://www.transdifferentiation.com/#_enref_34
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Domain Name: TRANSDIFFERENTIATION.COM
Registry Domain ID: 86684745_DOMAIN_COM-VRSN
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Updated Date: 2016-03-04T11:20:08Z
Creation Date: 2002-05-17T14:34:32Z
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